Using Congestion Pricing to Reduce Carbon Emissions

Research on Urban Road Congestion Pricing Strategy Considering Carbon Dioxide Emissions (20 page pdf, Yitian Wang, Zixuan Peng, Keming Wang, Xiaolin Song, Baozhen Yao, and Tao Feng, Sustainability, Aug. 6, 2015)

Today we review research into models of congestion pricing to reduce both traffic congestion and the emissions that are produced by stop and go traffic- something that is not usually considered when planning congestion pricing because of the difficulty in measuring actual road emissions. The fact that road emissions make up 80% of transportation GHG emissions makes this assessment very important when emission reduction, especially in cities, is the goal. Results indicate that achieving both objectives is feasible with emissions falling by 19%, and modal car use falling from 70% to 56% with increased use of public transit.  

Key Quotes:

“traffic congestion affects the efficiency and quality of life, such as lengthening travel time, increasing travel delays and resulting in traffic accidents…. [also]aggravates environmental pollution, such as reducing the use of fuel, increasing energy consumption and increasing pollutant emissions reduction”

 “emissions of motor vehicles are high in cases of stop-and-go traffic and in high-speed situations.”

“congestion pricing strategy has been recognized as one of the most effective countermeasures of traffic demand management (TDM) to mitigate traffic congestion.. can effectively transfer the car users to the public transportation and mitigate traffic congestion”

“In 2008, road emissions accounted for 80% of the total emission in the transportation sector, which has since then increased continuously…carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions on roads in urban centers substantially affect global warming.”

“Comparing the carbon emissions before and after the implementation of congestion pricing..the total carbon emission reduces from 121.22 (ton/h) to 98.31 (ton/h), which falls 18.9%. This is because traffic congestion pricing can increase the total cost by car, transfer the car users to the public transportation and reduce the car traffic flow reduce dramatically”

“The share rate of bus increases from 30.1% to 43.7%, while the share rate of car decreases from 69.9% to 56.3%.”

 ‘the scheme proposed in this paper can mitigate traffic congestion and reduce carbon emissions more effectively than the other two schemes. This is because traffic congestion pricing considering the carbon emissions costs can adjust the structure of urban traffic and thus to create a low carbon city.”

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How Should Countries Take Responsibility for Climate Change for Both Past and Future GHG Emissions?

Allocating a 2°C cumulative carbon budget to countries (10 page pdf, Renaud Gignac and H Damon Matthews, Environ. Res. Lett., Jun. 19, 2015)

Today we review a very timely analysis and proposition concerning the equitable sharing of the carbon debt that needs to be paid off in order for the world to meet the objective of limiting climate warming to 2 deg C or 450 ppme by 2050 which is the objective of the climate conference to be held in Paris in December 2015. The authors estimated past CO2 emissions from the nations of the world, noting the top ten emitters were United States, China, Russia, Brazil, India, Germany, United Kingdom, France, Indonesia and Canada (where the roles of USA and Russia stand out). The turning to the carbon debt as a result of future emissions projected with climate modeling from now to 2050 (where the current peak emissions from the USA and China stand out). Commitments stated by some countries in advance of the conference fall well short of the combined carbon debt but the approach presents the benefit of an objective sharing of responsibility for reaching the target. Further refinement is needed to move beyond CO2 emissions to include other greenhouse gases.  

Key Quotes:

“contraction and convergence (C&C) framework can be applied to the division of a global carbon budget among nations, in a manner that both maintains total emissions below a level consistent with 2 °C, and also adheres to the principle of attaining equal per capitaCO2 emissions within the coming decades”

“historical differences in responsibility for climate warming can be quantified via a cumulative carbon debt (or credit), which represents the amount by which a given country’s historical emissions have exceeded (or fallen short of) the emissions that would have been consistent with their share of world population over time.”

“The accumulated difference over time between actual and hypothetical equal per capita emissions therefore represents a country’s carbon debt (in the case of larger than equal per capita emissions) or credit (in the case of smaller than equal per capita emissions)”

“As expected, developed countries with high present-day per capita emissions see a dramatic decrease in their annual allowable emissions. This pattern holds also for China, whose per capita emissions are currently higher than the global average.”

“By contrast, India, Brazil and Indonesia maintain near-constant per capita emissions throughout the convergence phase, whereas much less developed regions such as Africa show large increases in their share of world emissions.”

“At the end of the year 2013, all developed countries carry substantial carbon debts, ranging here from 3.1 Gt CO2 for France, to more than 100 Gt CO2 for the United States.”

“Countries in the European Union have committed to a 40% reduction by 2030 relative to 1990 levels, Russia has announced a 25–30% cut by 2030 relative to 1990, Canada has targeted 30% below 2005 levels by 2030, and the United States have pledged to decrease emissions by 26–28% by 2025 relative to 2005 levels…China has announced that their emissions will peak by 2030. All of these commitments are clearly less ambitious than the values plotted”

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The Main Question for Urban Planners to Resolve- Sprawl or Densification?

Although an important factor, there is a complex relationship between urban densities and car use. (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

Density: Drivers, Dividends and Debates (32 page pdf, Greg Clark, Emily Moir, Urban Land Institute, Jun. 23, 2015) Also discussed here: Density: Drivers, Dividends and Debates (Catherine Anderson , Urban Land Institute, Jun. 23, 2015) 

 A compact city tends to be more environmentally sustainable and has generally cleaner air than one that is spread out with emphasis on making it easier for people to drive to the centre of town with emphasis on roads wherever it allows them to drive more quickly. Today we review a research paper that examines the meaning(s) of urban density, explores the many myths about sprawl and intensification and suggests better designed and more sustainable cities for the future. Cities are categorized in terms of the density of their urban core, inner city and suburbs as Low-High-Low (typical of Europe), Low-Low-Low (typical of sprawled cities in USA/Canada/Australia), Low-Low-High (Toronto, Oslo), Medium-High- High (developing world cities). High density cities enjoy a number of advantages over low density ones, including walkability, natural habitats and economic waste disposal but fears of lower livability, traffic congestion and noise/pollution in high density cities need to be mitigated. Oslo and Toronto are seen as large cities where the balance is more nearly found. 

Key Quotes:
“54 percent of the world’s population, some 3.9 billion people, live in urbanised areas. By 2050 the urban proportion of the population is projected to grow by 2.5 billion, reaching 66 percent of the total
“ how to deliver successful densification is not so obvious and is one of the most important topics of this urban decade. Good density will mark out the next generation of winning cities”
“The Downtown and Central Waterfront area [of Toronto] is the key area for both residential and commercial development, with close to 40% of approved new developments in the city. … Toronto had more high rise buildings under construction than any other city in North America from 2012 to 2014.”
“The key combination is density with place-making and infrastructure. If you have both you get a really successful city like London. If you have density without place-making you get a different kind of city.”
“Vienna and Paris stand out as higher density cities which perform strongly on the positive benchmarks ….Mexico City on the other hand is a high density city that is the worst performer on both ‘good’ and ‘bad’ density indicators. …. Although less dense overall than the majority of the case study cities, Toronto is particularly successful in minimising the negative effects of density. “
some typologies:

• Low-High-Low cities:are cities which are characterised by high density cores, but much lower density …European cities
• Low-Low-Low cities:are those cities with expansive suburbs and high levels of car dependence, as well as spacious downtown zones. Many North American cities..
• Low-Low-High cities:are those cities which have made conscious efforts to densify particular neighbourhoods or districts…Toronto and Oslo..
• Medium-High-High cities:are both sprawling and dense, with crowded informal housing on the peripheries and particular pockets of very high density, around transit hubs for example… developing world cities..”

“Environmental aspects:

• Energy consumption is reduced in compact cities.
• denser cities are more walkable, and can provide more viable public transport options.
• More compact urban forms have smaller physical footprints, preserving greenfield sites and natural habitats.
• Waste disposal and management services can be more viable and economical to construct and operate at high density”

“liveability concerns (fear of overcrowding, noise and pollution, traffic, lack of green space) .. most important contemporary reasons for resistance to density, ahead of social concerns (crime, segregation) or economic concerns”

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"Avoid, Shift, Improve" - Decarbonizing Quebec’s Transportation Sector

Energy policy 2016-2025 - Decarbonization of Road Transport (73 page pdf, Gouvernement du Québec Ministère de l’Énergie et des Ressources naturelles, 2015)

Today we review a background paper prepared by the Quebec Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources, outlining plans to reduce the emission of carbon emissions by the transportation sector in that province, 76% of which comes from road transport. Recognizing that 99% of the province’s energy is produced from renewable energy sources, principally hydro, the main emphasis of the Avoid, Shift, and Improve plan, is on reducing travel in privately owned vehicles, shifting to use of a 95% electrified public transit and improving engine efficiency and increase the use of non carbon biofuels, propane and natural gas. Encouragement to convert to hybrid or totally electric vehicles (18% or 1.2 million by 2020 from under 6,000 today), and make more use of shared cars with an eye toward driverless or autonomous cars in the future that make fewer demands on the road infrastructure.

   

Key Quotes :

“in 2011, the road, air, maritime, rail and off-highway transportation sector generated 36 MT of CO2 equivalent, i.e. 44% of total emissions in Québec. Road transport alone accounted for 76% of transportation-related GHG emissions, i.e. 34% of total emissions.”

“The 2011-2020 Action Plan for Electric Vehicles…proposes ambitious targets including sales of hybrid or electric vehicles equivalent to 25% of annual new light-duty vehicle sales by 2020…in 2030, 1.2 million electric vehicles will operate on Québec roads (18% of registered light-duty vehicles), which will reduce gasoline consumption by 1.5 billion litres and GHG emissions by 3.5 million tonnes.” “the 158 000 heavy-duty road vehicles—including buses—represent a small proportion of the vehicles registered in Québec (roughly 2.6%), they consume nearly one-third of the petroleum products used for road transportation, mainly diesel. They account for one-third of GHG emissions and 80% of the particulate emissions attributable to the sector”

Avoid-Shift Improve Approach:

“Avoid This component comprises initiatives to avoid or reduce passenger travel and to shorten travel distances….  

Shift This component refers essentially to the transition from solitary use of a privately-owned motor vehicles to public transit or carpooling services..

 Improve 1) the enhancement of the energy efficiency of existing motor vehicles; 2) the use of alternative fuels with lower carbon dioxide footprints, in particular biofuels and natural gas; 3) the replacement or assistance of an internal combustion engine powered by a battery or a fuel cell (hydrogen).”

“nearly twice as many Quebecers appear to rely on bicycles for recreational purposes or travel than the North American average…the number of bicycle trips rose by 33% in Montréal’s central neighbourhoods between 2008 and 2013.”

“Fully autonomous vehicles are being tested and certain of their features will soon be incorporated into mass-production vehicles. Google announced the launching, in December 2014, of its autonomous car ready for testing on North American roads starting in 2015. Moreover, numerous automakers such as Audi, Toyota, Nissan, General Motors and Mercedes-Benz are carrying out autonomous car projects.”

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How Does Traffic Related Air Pollution Affect Children's Health?

English: Southern end of the High Street, Keynsham, on a busy Saturday. (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

Blood Pressure and Same-Day Exposure to Air Pollution at School: Associations with Nano-Sized to Coarse PM in Children (6 page pdf, Nicky Pieters, Gudrun Koppen, Martine Van Poppel, Sofie De Prins, Bianca Cox, Evi Dons, Vera Nelen, Luc Int Panis, Michelle Plusquin, Greet Schoeters, and Tim S. Nawrot, Environmental Health Perspectives, Jul. 2015)

Today we review research into the links between short term exposure to particulate matter of various sizes and impacts on blood pressure of school-age children who are particularly vulnerable because their higher breathing rate, as well as their generally greater activity than older people. Results indicate a clear association with Ultra Fine Particulates (diameter 20-30 nm) and higher blood pressure. In addition, repeated exposure to particulates may result in long-term chronically elevated pressures, as well as a chronic increase in arterial stiffness in children due to traffic-related air pollution.

Key Quotes:

“Short-term elevation in particulate air pollution has been associated with an increased risk for acute myocardial infarction and stroke”

“this is the first study of differences in children’s blood pressure in association with different size fractions of PM on the same day.. "

“In this study, children’s systolic blood pressure was positively associated with ambient UFP[ultra-fine particulates] measured in their school’s playground on the same morning”

“children might be more sensitive to air pollution because of their relatively higher ventilation rate and metabolic turnover, as well as the fact that some of the organ systems including the immune system are still in development… greater physical activity, spending more time outdoors, and their closer proximity to traffic exhaust emission sources compared with adults, might add to their vulnerability towards hypertensive effects of airborne particles”

“particle size is a determining factor in the effectiveness of particulate pollutants to cause rapid changes in the blood pressure of 6- to 12-year-old children”

 “repeated particle-induced elevations in blood pressure also lead to repeated increases in arterial wall stress and may result in long-term chronically elevated pressures. Epidemiological evidence exists for a chronic increase in arterial stiffness in children due to traffic-related air pollution”

 “Due to specific characteristics (high surface area, particle number, metal and organic carbon content) of UFP[ultra-fine particulates], they may be transferred directly into the circulation and cause systemic inflammation and peripheral vascular oxidative stress resulting in reductions of nitric oxide, enhancing vasoconstriction and as such change blood pressure.”

"Children attending school on days with higher ultrafine particulate concentrations (diameter < 100 nm) had higher systolic blood pressure. This association was largely dependent on particle size and was not confounded by the PM2.5 mass concentration.”

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Links between Air Pollution and Premature Deaths in the Netherlands

Air Pollution and Mortality in Seven Million Adults: The Dutch Environmental Longitudinal Study (DUELS) (8 page pdf, Paul H. Fischer, Marten Marra, Caroline B. Ameling, Gerard Hoek, Rob Beelen, Kees de Hoogh, Oscar Breugelmans, Hanneke Kruize, Nicole A.H. Janssen, and Danny Houthuijs, Environmental Health Perspectives, Jul. 2015)

Today we review research into the links between mortality of the adult Dutch population and exposure to NO2 and PM10 that establishes a new basis for that country. Results indicate a higher general mortality association with PM10 than previously estimated and with NO2 for all mortality except circulatory disease.

   

Key Quotes:

 “In this large Dutch nationwide population cohort of > 7 million adults we observed positive significant associations between estimated long-term exposure to air pollution (PM10 and NO2) at the home address and nonaccidental, circulatory disease, respiratory disease, and lung cancer mortality”

“the median PM10 concentration was 29 μg/m3 [5th–95th percentile, 24 μg/m3–32 μg/m3; interquartile range (IQR) = 2.4]; the median NO2 concentration was 31 μg/m3 (5th–95th percentile, 19 μg/m3–44 μg/m3; IQR = 10.0 μg/m3). We estimated HRs per 10-μg/m3 increase in the pollutant concentration..the range (and IQR) in NO2 concentrations is larger than the range in PM10 concentrations, because NO2 is more influenced by local (traffic) emissions than PM10, which is more affected by long-range transport.”

“we found particulate matter to be associated with all outcome measures that we have analyzed. Our relative risk estimate for PM10 on total mortality is higher than the relative risk estimate from a recent published study based on 19 European cohorts”

“For NO2 we found statistically significant associations with all outcomes except for circulatory disease mortality”

 “Our estimates for lung cancer mortality for PM10 and NO2 are higher than those published recently in the national cohorts”

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